DEVELOPMENT OF THE CONCEPT OF EU STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.29038/2524-2679-2022-02-44-65Keywords:
cybersecurity, international politics, European UnionAbstract
We have studied the main trends in the development of the European Union’s approaches to strategic communications. These activities address security chal- lenges and threats in the light of the association’s strategic priorities. The concept of strategic communication has changed over time and today is formed under the growing influence of hybrid threats and misinformation, especially in connec- tion with the beginning of Russia's hybrid aggression against Ukraine in 2014. The strategic situation is also significantly affected by the international situation. who carries them out. Decisions in the European Union and its member states are made taking into account the activities of major international actors and partners, including strategic decisions in the United States, NATO, G7. This may lead to the search for new concepts, such as strategic autonomy, with the corresponding goals of strategic communications. This study analyzes the main strategic documents of the secondary law of the Eu- ropean Union in the field of information security and network security to identify compliance with one of the approaches. The «Cyber Security Strategy for the Digital Decade», adopted in late 2020, and related documents are discussed in more detail. The closeness of the European Union’s approaches to the Western model of information (cyber) security and its activity in promoting it in the world has been established. We also considered the initiatives of the member states of the European Union to actively influence the processes of international coopera- tion in this area, in particular, taking into account the events and trends related to the activities of leading actors at the UN level. As a result, we can conclude that the EU's policy in the field of information (cy- ber) security is becoming clearer and that its constructive position on this issue is being promoted on the world stage.
References
Barrihna, Andre (2018). Virtual Neighbors: Russia and the EU in Cyberspace. Insight Turkey, Summer, 20, No. 3. URL: https://www.insightturkey.com/commentar- ies/virtual-neighbors-russia-and-the-eu-in-cyberspace
NATO (2009, April). NATO -Official text: Strasbourg / Kehl Summit Declara- tion Issued by the Heads of State and Government participating in the meeting of the North Atlantic Council in Strasbourg / Kehl. URL: https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natol- ive/news_52837
NATO (2009, September). NATO Strategic Communications Policy.
Cornish, P., Lindley-French, J., & Yorke, C. (2011, September). Strategic com- munications and national strategy. Chatham House. URL: https://www.chathamhouse. org/sites/default/files/r0911es%E2%80%93stratcomms.pdf
Bird Conrad (2008). Public Diplomacy in a Globalised World. Strategic Com- munication and Behaviour Change: Lessons from Domestic Policy, p. 106–119.
Taylor, Philip (2009). Public Diplomacy and Strategic Communications, in Snow
N. and Taylor Philip M. (eds), Routledge Handbook of Public Diplomacy. London. Rout- ledge, 2009, p. 10.
UK Cabinet Office, The National Security Strategy of the United Kingdom: Se- curity in an Interdependent World, Cm 7291 (London: The Stationery Office, March 2008), p. 7.
Cornish, P., Hughes, R. and Livingstone, D. (2009). Cyberspace and the Nation- al Security of the United Kingdom: Threats and Responses. London: Chatham House, p. 19–20.
Gunaratna, R., Jerard, J. and Rubin, L. (2011), Terrorist Rehabilitation and Coun- ter-Radicalisation: New Approaches to Counter-Terrorism. London. Routledge.
Cornish, Paul (2009). The United States and counterinsurgency: «political first, political last, political always»’. International Affairs, vol. 85, No. 1, January.
Tatham, Steve (2008). Strategic Communications: A Primer, ARAG Special Series, vol. 8, Defence Academy of the United Kingdom.
Christopher, Paul (2011). Strategic Communication: Origins, Concepts and Current Debates. Santa Barbara. Praeger.
Cabinet Office, (2011). CONTEST: The United Kingdom’s Strategy for Countering Terrorism London: The Stationery Office.
US Department of Defense (2009). Strategic Communication Science and Technol- ogy Plan: Current Activities, Capability Gap and Areas for Further Investment.
US Joint Forces Command, ‘Commander’s Handbook for Strategic Communica- tion and Communication Strategy’(2010), vol. 3: Headquarters, Department of the US Army (2009). Field Manual 3–24.2, ‘Tactics in Counterinsurgency‘, p. 288.
Headquarters, Department of the US Army (2009). «Tactics in Counterinsurgency». URL: https://armypubs.army.mil/epubs/DR_pubs/DR_a/pdf/web/fm3_24x2.pdf
Goldman, E. (2007). Strategic communication: A tool for asymmetric warfare. Small Wars Journal. URL: https://smallwarsjournal.com/blog/strategic-communication-a- tool-for-asymmetric-warfare
NATO (1999). The Alliance's Strategic Concept URL: https://www.nato.int/cps/ en/natohq/official_texts_27433.htm#:~:text=At%20their%20Summit%20meeting%20 in,years%20of%20the%20Cold%20War.
NATO (2010) Strategic Concept 2010. URL: https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/ topics_82705.htm
Allison, R. (2014, November). Russian 'deniable' intervention in Ukraine: How and why Russia broke the rules. International Affairs, 90(6), p. 1255–1297. URL: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1468-2346.12170
Baezner, M. (2018). Cyber and Information warfare in the Ukrainian conflict. Center for Security Studies (CSS), ETH. URL: https://css.ethz.ch/content/dam/ethz/ special-interest/gess/cis/center-for-securitie sstudies/pdfs/20181003_MB_HS_RUS- UKR%20V2_rev.pdf
Bradshaw, S., & Howard, P. (2019). The global disinformation order. 2019 global inventory of organised social media manipulation (Working Paper 2019.2). Oxford Inter- net Institute. URL: https://comprop.oii.ox.ac.uk/w pcontent/uploads/sites/93/2019/09/ CyberTroop-Report19.pdf
Cottiero, C., Kucharski, K., Olimpieva, E., & Orttung, R. W. (2015). War of words: The impact of Russian state television on the Russian Internet. Nationalities Papers. URL:. https://doi.org/p
Driscoll, J., & Steinert-Threlkeld, Z. (2020). Social media and Russian territorial ir- redentism: Some facts and a conjecture. Post-Soviet Affairs, p. 101–121. URL: https://www. tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1060586X.2019.1701879
Gibson, K. H. (2019, September). Defence News Conference Lessons learned from NATO's hybrid battlefield [Panel].
Hoffman, F. G. (2018). Examining Complex Forms of Conflict: Gray Zone and Hybrid Challenges. PRISM, vol. 7 (4), National Defense University. URL: https://cco.ndu. edu/News/Article/1680696/examining-complex-formsof-conflict-gray-zone-and-hybrid- challenges/
Laity, M. (2018). NATO and Strategic Communications: 'The Story So Far'. The Three Swords Magazine, p. 65–73. URL: http://www.jwc.nato.int/images/stories/threes- words/THREESWORDSMARCH2018_Websitereleased.pdf
Marsden, C., & Meyer, T. (2019). Regulating disinformation with artificial in- telligence. European Parliamentary Research Service. URL: https://www.europarl.eu- ropa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2019/624279/EPRS_STU(2019)624279_EN.pdf
Martens, B., Aguiar, L., Gómez-Herrera, E., & Mueller-Langer, F. (2018). The Digital Transformation of News Media and the Rise of Disinformation and Fake News (JRC Digital Economy Working Paper No. 2018–02). European Commission, Joint Re- search Centre. URL: https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=3164170
Nemr, C., & Gangware, W. (2019). Weapons of mass distraction: Foreign State- sponsored disinformation in the digital age. Park Advisors. URL: https://www.state.gov/ wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Weapons-of-MassDistraction-Foreign-State-Sponsored- Disinformation-in-the-Digital-Age.pdf
Nimmo, B., Barojan, D., & Aleksejeva, N. (2017). Russian Narratives on NA- TO's Deployment. DFRLab. URL: https://medium.com/dfrlab/russian-narratives-on- natos-deployment-616e19c3d194
Norberg, J. (2018). Training for War – Russia's Strategic-level Military Exercis- es 2009–2017 (FOI-R--4627--SE; p. 110). Swedish Defence Research Agency–Ministry of Defence. URL: https://www.foi.se/rest-api/report/FOI-R-- 4627—SE
Peter, M., Alexander, S., Cambridge, A., Renee, S., Kang, R., Kiefer, S., Takaya- ma, K., Laci, F., Michael, G., & Katie, M. (2019). Combating targeted disinformation campaigns. A whole-of-society issue. 2019 Public-private analytic exchange program. URL: https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/ia/ia_combatti ngtargeted- disinformation-campaigns.pdf
Rusnáková, S. (2017). Russian New Art of Hybrid Warfare in Ukraine. Slovak Journal of Political Sciences, 17 (vol. 3), p. 343–380.
Sari, A. (2019). Legal resilience in an era of grey zone conflicts and hybrid threats (Working Paper No. 2019/1). Exeter Centre for International Law. URL https:// papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3315682
Snegovaya, M. (2015). Putin's information warfare in Ukraine. Soviet origins of Russia's hybrid warfare. Institute for the Study of War. URL: http://www.understandingwar. org/sites/default/files/Russian%20Report%201%20Putin%27s%20Information%20War- fare%20in%20Ukraine-%20Soviet%20Origins%20of%20Russias%20Hybrid%20Warfare. pdf
Vendil, C., & Oxenstierna, S. (2017). Russian Think Tanks and Soft Power (FOI-R- 4451-SE). FOI–Swedish Defence ResearchAgency. URL: https://www.foi.se/rest-api/report/ FOI-R--4451--SE
Wilson, A. (2014). Ukraine Crisis: What it means for the West. Yale University Press.
US Senate. (2019). Report of the selected committee on intelligence on Russian ac- tive measures campaigns and interference in the 2016 U.S. election. vol.1: Russian efforts against election infrastructure with additional views. URL: https://www.intelligence.senate. gov/sites/default/files/documents/Report_Volume1.pdf
UK Ministry of Defence. (2019). Defence Strategic Communication: An approach to formulating and executing strategy (Joint Doctrine Note No. 2/19). Development, Concepts and Doctrine Centre. URL: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/ system/uploads/attachment_data/file/8043 19/20190523-dcdc_doctrine_uk_Defence_Stra- trategic_Communication_jdn_2_19.pdf
High Level Group on fake news and online disinformation- European Commission. (2018). A multidimensional approach to disinformation – Report of the independent High Level Group on fake news and online disinformation DOI:10.2759/739290). URL: https:// op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/6ef4df8b4cea-11e8-be1d-01aa75ed71a1
Hybrid CoE. (2019). Countering disinformation: News media and legal resilience [COI Records]. European Centre of Excellence and the Media Pool, part of the Finnish Emergency Supply Organization in Helsinki. URL: https://www.hybridcoe.fi/wp-content/ uploads/2019/11/News-Media-and-Legal-Resilience_2019_rgb.pdf
Mueller, R. (2019). Report On The Investigation Into Russian Interference In The 2016 Presidential Election. US Department of Justice. URL: https://www.justice.gov/stor- age/report.pdf
NATO StratCom CoE. (2019). Hybrid Threats: A Strategic Communications Per- spective. NATO. URL: https://www.stratcomcoe.org/download/file/fid/80212
NATO StratCom CoE. (2020). About Strategic Communications | StratCom. URL: https://www.stratcomcoe.org/about-strategic-communications
Alandete, D. (2017, November 10). European Union fights the Kremlin's pro- paganda machine. El País. URL: https://english.elpais.com/elpais/2017/11/09/ineng- lish/1510218067_521677.html
Coyer, P. (2016). The Patriarch, The Pope, Ukraine And The Disintegration Of 'The Russian World'. Forbes. URL: https://www.forbes.com/sites/paulcoyer/2016/03/20/the-pa- triarch-the-pope-ukraine-and-thedisintegration-of-the-russian-world/#10471ebd2523
Global Spain. (2019). The truth about Catalonia's bid for independence. URL:https://www.thisistherealspain.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/THE-TRUTH-ABOUT- THE-CATALANINDEPENDENCE-BID-28-nov-2019.pdf
Segura, C. (2017, September). Assange alienta que la rebelión en Cataluña se extienda a nivel global. El País. URL: https://elpais.com/ccaa/2017/09/26/catalun- ya/1506456387_836185.html
Biswas, A., & Tortajada, C. (2018, February 23). China's soft power is on the rise. China Daily. URL: http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201802/23/WS5a8f59a- 9a3106e7dcc13d7b8.html
Chatzky, A., & McBride J. (2020). China's Massive Belt and Road Initiative. Council on Foreign Relations. URL: https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/chinas-massive- belt-and-road-initiative
European Commission and the High Representative. (2019). EU-China – A strate- gic outlook. URL: https://ec.europa.eu/commission/sites/beta-political/files/communi- cation-eu-china-a-strategicoutlook.pdf
European Commission and the High Representative. (2020). Tackling Covid-19 disinformation – Getting the facts right. URL: https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/ communication-tackling-Covid-19-disinformationgetting-facts-right_en.pdf
Gil, T. (2020, March 18). Coronavirus: Cómo el virus se volvió parte de la 'guerra' política entre EE.UU. y China. BBC News Mundo. URL: https://www.bbc.com/ mundo/noticias-internacional-51938799
Karnitschnig, M. (2020, March 18). China is winning the coronavirus propa- ganda war. POLITICO. URL: https://www.politico.eu/article/coronavirus-china-win- ning-propaganda-war/
Molander Roger C., Riddile Andrew, Wilson Peter A. (1996) Strategic Informa- tion Warfare. A New Face of War. RAND. MR-661-OSD. URL: https://www.rand.org/ pubs/monograph_reports/MR661.html
Nato Standard ajp-3.10.1 Allied Joint Doctrine for Psychological Operations. Edition B version 1. With uk national elements. September 2014. URL: url: https:// assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/ file/450521/20150223-AJP_3_10_1_PSYOPS_with_UK_Green_pages.pdf
Office of the Secretary of Defense. National Security Strategy. URL: https://his- tory.defense.gov/Historical-Sources/National-Security-Strategy/
NATO Deterrence and defence. URL: https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/top- ics_133127.htm
The Interim National Security Strategic Guidance. Congressional Research Ser- vice, March 29, 2021. URL: https://sgp.fas.org/crs/natsec/IF11798.pdf
ALLIED JOINT DOCTRINE FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL OPERATIONS—AJP-3.10.1 EDITION B. URL: https://nso.nato.int/nso/nsdd/main/standards/stanag-details/8458/ EN?tab=ratifications
NATO 2030: MAKING A STRONG ALLIANCE EVEN STRONGER. URL: https://www.nato.int/nato2030/
G7 (2018). Charlevoix Commitment on Defending Democracy from Foreign Threats. URL: https://www.mofa.go.jp/files/000373846.pdf
Nato Standard ajp-3.10.1 Allied Joint Doctrine for Psychological Operations.
Edition B version 1. With uk national elements. September 2014. URL: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/ file/450521/20150223-AJP_3_10_1_PSYOPS_with_UK_Green_pages.pdf
Shared vision, common action. A stronger Europe: a global strategy for the Eu- ropean Union’s foreign and security policy. URL: https://op.europa.eu/en/publication- detail/-/publication/3eaae2cf-9ac5-11e6-868c-01aa75ed71a1
European Union Institute for Security Studies (2016). EU strategic communica- tions with a view to counteracting propaganda. European Parliament. URL: http://www. europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/IDAN/2016/578008/EXPO_IDA(2016)578008_ EN.pdf
Strategic communications as a key factor in countering hybrid threats (2021). By VillarGarcía JuanPablo, Carlota Tarín Quirós, Blázquez Julio Soria, Galán Carlos Pascual, Galán Carlos Cordero. STOA. European Union. URL: https://www.europarl. europa.eu/thinktank/en/document/EPRS_STU(2021)656323
Where will the EU’s Strategic Compass point? European Parliamentary Re- search Service (2021). URL: https://epthinktank.eu/2021/10/07/where-will-the-eus- strategic-compass-point/
Borrell Josep (2021). A Strategic Compass for Europe. URL: https:// www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/eu-strategic-compass-by-josep-borrell- 2021-11?barrier=accesspaylog
Questions and answers: a background for the Strategic Compass. EEAS (2021). URL: https://eeas.europa.eu/headquarters/headquarters-homepage/97895/questions- and-answers-background-strategic-compass_en
A Strategic Compass for a stronger EU security and defence in the next decade. Council of the EU. Press release (2022). URL: https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/ press/press-releases/2022/03/21/a-strategic-compass-for-a-stronger-eu-security-and- defence-in-the-next-decade/
A Strategic Compass for Security and Defence – For a European Union that pro- tects its citizens, values and interests and contributes to international peace and security. URL: https://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST-7371-2022-INIT/en/pdf
EU Rapid Deployment Capacity. EEAS factsheet. URL: https://www.eeas.eu- ropa.eu/eeas/eu-rapid-deployment-capacity_en
A Strategic Compass for the EU. EEAS factsheet. URL: https://www.eeas.eu- ropa.eu/eeas/strategic-compass-eu-0_en
Organisation chart of the EEAS. EEAS (2021). URL: https://eeas.europa.eu/ headquarters/headquarters-homepage/3602/organisation-chart-eeas_en
Strategic communication. EEAS. URL: https://eeas.europa.eu/headquarters/ headquarters-homepage/100/strategic-communications_en
Strategic Communication Press and Information Officer. EEAC. URL: https:// eeas.europa.eu/headquarters/headquarters-homepage/83986/strategic-communication- press-and-information-officer_en
Strategic communications as a key factor in countering hybrid threats. By Vil- larGarcía JuanPablo, Tarín Quirós Carlota, Soria Julio Blázquez, Pascual Carlos Galán, Cordero Carlos Galán. STOA. (2021). URL: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/ en/document/EPRS_STU(2021)656323
Joint Communication to the European Parliament and the Council. Joint Framework on countering hybrid threats a European Union response. Brussels (2016). 18 final. URL: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52016JC0018
European Agenda on Security – Legislative documents. European Commission. URL: https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/internal-security/europe- an-agenda-security-legislative-documents_en
EU Global Strategy. EEAS. URL: https://eeas.europa.eu/topics/eu-global-strat- egy_en
European Defence Action Plan. Roadmap. URL: https://ec.europa.eu/smart-reg- ulation/roadmaps/docs/2016_grow_006_cwp_european_defence_action_plan_en.pdf
Joint Communication to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions. Cybersecurity Strat- egy of the European Union: An Open, Safe and Secure Cyberspace (2013). 1 final. URL: https://eeas.europa.eu/archives/docs/policies/eu-cyber-security/cybsec_comm_en.pdf
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council. European Energy Security Strategy /* COM/2014/0330 final */. URL: https:// eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A52014DC0330
European Union Maritime Security Strategy as adopted by the Council (Gen- eral Affairs) (June 2014). URL: https://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST%20 11205%202014%20INIT/EN/pdf
Joint Communication to the European Parliament and the Council. Joint Framework on countering hybrid threats a European Union response. Brussels, 6.4.2016 JOIN (2016) 18 final. URL: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52016JC0018
Communication from the commission to the european parliament, the council, the european economic and social committee and the committee of the regions. Tackling online disinformation: a European Approach. COM/2018/236 final. URL: https://eur- lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52018DC0236
Questions & Answers: Reinforcing democracy and integrity of elections. Eu- ropean Commission. URL: https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/qa- nda_21_6212
European Democracy: Commission sets out new laws on political advertising, electoral rights and party funding. European Commission. URL: https://ec.europa.eu/ commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_21_6118
Code of Practice on Disinformation. European Commission. URL: https://digi- tal-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/code-practice-disinformation
Joint Communication to the European Parliament, the European Council, the Council, the European Cconomic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Re- gions. Action Plan against Disinformation. Brussels, 5.12.2018 JOIN (2018) 36 final. URL: https://eeas.europa.eu/sites/default/files/action_plan_against_disinformation.pdf
Audit preview Information on an upcoming audit. EU action plan against disin- formation. European Court of Auditors. (2020). URL: https://www.eca.europa.eu/lists/ ecadocuments/ap20_04/ap_disinformation_en.pdf
Kushnir, V. (2020). Proposals for improving the legal mechanism on strategic communications in the armed forces of Ukraine, Derzhavne upravlinnya: udoskonalen- nya ta rozvytok. Vol. 10, URL: http://www.dy.nayka.com.ua/?op=1&z=1796
