ESTONIA’S ANTI-CORRUPTION STRATEGY: ACHIEVED PROGRESS AND EXISTING CHALLENGES
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.29038/2524-2679-2022-02-152-172Keywords:
Estonia, corruption, prevention and counteraction of corruption, anti-corruption policy, anti-corruption valuesAbstract
Estonia’s experience in preventing and combating corruption as the most effective case in Central and Eastern Europe and the post-Soviet space is studied. The aim of the article is to construct a system of factors that in- fluenced/influence anti-corruption processes in Estonia. The factors that contributed/contribute to anti-corruption progress and the factors that slow down Estonia’s achievement of zero corruption are identified. The peculiarities of anti-corruption reforms in Estonia at the institutional level are specified. It is investigated how the values at the levels of the estab- lishment and the population influenced/influence the effectiveness of the implementation of anti-corruption strategies, the emergence of new corruption challenges. Estonia’s achievements in overcoming administrative corruption, as well as risks in the field of political corruption and top-level corruption are indicated. The methodological basis of the study is neo-in- stitutionalism and axiological analysis, the synthesis of which allowed the construction of a system of factors of two types: 1) those that contributed/ contribute to the anti-corruption progress of Estonia; 2) those that slow down Estonia’s movement towards zero corruption. The constructive fac- tors include: historically formed identification of Estonia and Estonians with the West; rapid removal from power of representatives of the former Soviet elite; great political will of the Estonian elite to carry out reforms; proper use of the window of opportunity; preparation for accession and EU membership; digitalization of the state and society, etc. The destruc- tive factors include: emphasis on institutional reforms while paying little attention to the formation of anti-corruption values of citizens; external influences (the factor of Russia); strong ties between political parties and business; gaps in legislation (lobbying, public procurement, etc.); im- perfections of criminal procedural law; insufficient state protection of whistleblowers; low public support for the activities of whistleblowers; non-compliance of business with ethical standards of the competitive en- vironment, etc.
References
Anti-Corruption Action Plan 2021–2025 (2021). Ministry of Justice Republic of Estonia. URL: https://www.korruptsioon.ee/sites/www.korruptsioon.ee/files/elfinder/doku- mendid/ anticorruptionactionplan20212025.pdf (in English).
Bennich-Björkman, L. (2002). State capture in the Baltics: Identity, International Role Models and Network Formation. In: W. Maciejewski (Ed.), The Baltic Sea Region: Cultures, Politics, Societies (pp. 345–369). Uppsala: The Baltic University Press (in Eng- lish).
Commission of the European Communities (2006). I2010 eGovernment Action Plan: Accelerating eGovernment in Europe for the Benefit of All. Brussels: European Commission (in English).
Earle, B. (2000). Bribery and Corruption in Eastern Europe, the Baltic States, and the Commonwealth of Independent States: What is to be Done Beverley Earle. Cornell Interna- tional Law Journal, 33 (3), 83–513 (in English).
Estonia 2035 (2021). Eesti Vabariigi Valitsus. URL: https://valitsus.ee/strateegia- eesti-2035-arengukavad-ja-planeering/strateegia/materjalid (in Estonian).
Eesti elanikkonna turvalisuse uuring (2019). Estonian Police and Border Guard Board. URL: https://www.politsei.ee/files/Uudised/2020/ppa-raport-0412.pdf?88f9c15a20 (in Estonian).
Estonian Anti-Corruption Strategy 2013–2020 (2013). Estonian Ministry of Justice. URL: https://www.korruptsioon.ee/sites/www.korruptsioon.ee/files/elfinder/dokumendid/ estonian_ anti-corruption_strategy_2013-2020.pdf (in English).
Grigas, А. (2012). Legacies, Coercion and Soft Power: Russian Influence in the Bal- tic States. London: Chatham House (in English).
Kartal, M. (2014). Accounting for the bad apples: the EU’s impact on national cor- ruption before and after accession. Journal of European Public Policy, 21 (6), 941–959 (in English).
Khoma, N., Kokoriev, O. (2021). Deconsolidation of Liberal Democracy in the Bal- tic States. The Issue of Compliance with the EU Standards at Institutional and Value Levels. Romanian Journal of European Affairs, 21 (1), 39–57 (in English).
Kupatadze, A. (2017). Accounting for Diverging Paths in Most Similar Cases: Cor- ruption in Baltics and Caucasus. Crime, Law and Social Change, 67 (2), 187–208 (in Eng- lish).
Kuritegevus Eestis 2020 (2021). Ministry of Justice Republic of Estonia. URL: https://www. kriminaalpoliitika.ee/kuritegevus2020/korruptsioon-ja-majanduskuriteod (in Estonian).
Laar, M. (2002). Little Сountry That Сould. Suffolk: St. Edmundsbury press (in English).
Mungiu-Pippidi, А. (2017). Corruption as Social Order, World Development Re- port Background Paper. Washington, D.C.: World Bank (in English).
Nørgaard O., Johannsen L., Skak M., Sørensen, R.H. (1999). The Baltic States after Independence (2nd ed.). Cheltenham, UK/Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing (in English).
Smith, G., Assland, A., Mole, R. (1994). Statehood, Ethnic Relations and Citizen- ship in the Baltic States. The national self-determination of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. In: G. Smith (Ed.), The Baltic States: The National Self-Determination of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. New York: St. Martin’s Press (in English).
Steen, A. (2006). Do Elite Beliefs Matter? Elites and Economic Reforms in the Bal- tic States and Russia. In: F. Engelstad, T. Gulbrandsen (Eds.), Comparative Studies of Social and Political Elites (Comparative Social Research, vol. 23, pp. 79–102). Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited (in English).
Taagepera, R. (2002). Baltic values and corruption in comparative context. Journal of Baltic Studies, 33 (3), 243–258 (in English).
The Estonian Example – Q&A with Toomas Hendrik Ilves (2013), The Ripon Fo- rum, 47 (1), 4–9 (in English).
Villaveces-Izquierdo, S., Uribe Burcher, C. (2013), Illicit Networks and Politics in the Baltic States. Stockholm: International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (in English).
Wadsworth, F., Swartz, B., Wheat, J. (2010). Corruption in the Baltic State Region.
International Business & Economics Research Journal, 9 (2), 109–116 (in English).
World Justice Project (2021), Rule of Law Index. Еstonia. URL: https://worldjusti- ceproject.org/rule-of-law-index/country/2021/Estonia/ (in English)
Wright, H. (2021). 'Let us make an honest, caring, corruption-free and self-con- fident Estonia', ERR News. URL: https://news.err.ee/1608121357/let-us-make-an-honest- caring-corruption-free-and-self-confident-estonia (in English).
